• The Rules of Binary Addition Adding binary numbers is a very simple task, and very similar to the longhand addition of decimal numbers. As with decimal numbers, you start by adding the bits (digits) one column, or place weight, at…

  • It is imperative to understand that the type of numeration system used to represent numbers has no impact on the outcome of any arithmetical function (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, roots, powers, or logarithms). A number is a number is a…

  • Because octal and hexadecimal numeration systems have bases that are multiples of binary (base 2), conversion back and forth between either hexadecimal or octal and binary is very easy. Also, because we are so familiar with the decimal system, converting…

  • Although the prime intent of octal and hexadecimal numeration systems is for the “shorthand” representation of binary numbers in digital electronics, we sometimes have the need to convert from either of those systems to decimal form. Of course, we could…

  • Because binary numeration requires so many bits to represent relatively small numbers compared to the economy of the decimal system, analyzing the numerical states inside of digital electronic circuitry can be a tedious task. Computer programmers who design sequences of…

  • Let’s count from zero to twenty using four different kinds of numeration systems: hash marks, Roman numerals, decimal, and binary: System: Hash Marks Roman Decimal Binary ——- ———- —– ——- —— Zero n/a n/a 0 0 One | I 1…

  • The Romans devised a system that was a substantial improvement over hash marks, because it used a variety of symbols (or ciphers) to represent increasingly large quantities. The notation for 1 is the capital letter I. The notation for 5…

  • The expression of numerical quantities is something we tend to take for granted. This is both a good and a bad thing in the study of electronics. It is good, in that we’re accustomed to the use and manipulation of…

  • Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) uses digital signals to control power applications, as well as being fairly easy to convert back to analog with a minimum of hardware. Analog systems, such as linear power supplies, tend to generate a lot of…

  • Devoting a whole chapter in a modern electronics text to the design and function of electron tubes may seem a bit strange, seeing as how semiconductor technology has all but obsoleted tubes in almost every application. However, there is merit…

  • For extremely high-frequency applications (above 1 GHz), the interelectrode capacitances and transit-time delays of standard electron tube construction become prohibitive. However, there seems to be no end to the creative ways in which tubes may be constructed, and several high-frequency…

  • In addition to performing tasks of amplification and switching, tubes can be designed to serve as display devices. Perhaps the best-known display tube is the cathode ray tube, or CRT. Originally invented as an instrument to study the behavior of…

  • So far, we’ve explored tubes which are totally “evacuated” of all gas and vapor inside their glass envelopes, properly known as vacuum tubes. With the addition of certain gases or vapors, however, tubes take on significantly different characteristics, and are…

  • For bipolar junction transistors, the fundamental measure of amplification is the Beta ratio (β), defined as the ratio of collector current to base current (IC/IB). Other transistor characteristics such as junction resistance, which in some amplifier circuits may impact performance…

  • Similar in thought to the idea of the integrated circuit, tube designers tried integrating different tube functions into single tube envelopes to reduce space requirements in more modern tube-type electronic equipment. A common combination seen within a single glass shell…

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